For Mac OS Xįrom a Finder window or your desktop, locate the image file that you want to use.Ĭontrol-click (or right-click) the file, then choose Set Desktop Picture from the shortcut menu. If you're using multiple displays, this changes the wallpaper of your primary display only. Launch the Settings app from your iPhone or iPad Home screen.Choose whether you want to set the wallpaper for your Home screen, Lock screen or both Home and lock Haga clic en Ver > vista actual > Cambiar vista > Administrar vistas > Nuevo.Adjust the positioning and size and then tap Set as wallpaper on the upper left corner of your screen.Choose from the collections of wallpapers included with your phone, or from your photos.Tap the wallpapers icon on the bottom left of your screen.If you don't see Set Desktop Picture in the shortcut menu, you should see a sub-menu named Services instead. Learn about other scientific terms with the NIGMS glossary.Select your new wallpaper to enter Preview mode.Tap the type of wallpaper you would like to use.You can choose from Apple's stock imagery, or your own library. Improper folding of proteins is common in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s. Studying how proteins can misfold and clump together.Studies like these can lead to new, stronger antibiotics. Investigating how antibiotics fight infections by inhibiting ribosomes.Understanding how proteins are properly folded and transported could help generate treatments for diseases such as cystic fibrosis. Exploring protein transport within cells and across membranes.Determining the function of enzymes involved in autophagy, a cell’s natural process of recycling old proteins and organelles that goes awry in some diseases like cancer.Many NIGMS-supported scientists study proteins. You can explore 3D structures of proteins (even DNA, RNA, and other biological molecules) in the Protein Data Bank for free! When scientists determine a structure, they upload it to this valuable resource that NIGMS has helped to fund since 1978. Most drugs-including treatments for allergies, high blood pressure, and cancer-target proteins. Knowing a protein’s shape, including which section of it controls its function, allows researchers to design therapeutics that turn that function on or off. Researchers can also gain additional information by changing a protein’s amino acid sequence and seeing how each change affects the protein’s activity.
Researchers have developed techniques to visualize the 3D shape of a protein, including X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). In a process called translation, the ribosome reads the mRNA and converts it into a chain of amino acids, which then folds into a protein. First, RNA polymerase copies these instructions in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA), which passes through a cellular “machine” called a ribosome.
Proteins are built based on instructions stored in DNA. Credit: Center for Eukaryotic Structural Genomics, PSI. This model illustrates human aspartoacylase, an important enzyme involved in brain metabolism. Some proteins are only a few dozen amino acids long, while others consist of thousands of amino acids. A protein’s shape and orientation enable it to do its job. For example, hydrophobic (water-fearing) amino acids will arrange in the center of a protein away from water molecules, while hydrophilic (water-loving) amino acids will arrange on the outside of the protein in contact with water molecules. An amino acid’s side chain dictates its behavior.
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There are 20 amino acids commonly found in nature, each containing the same backbone structure plus a unique attachment called a side chain. Proteins are chains of amino acids joined by chemical bonds like a string of beads. For example, cytokines are the protein messengers of the immune system and can increase or decrease the intensity of an immune response. Some proteins act as chemical messengers between cells. Those with lactose intolerance don’t produce enough lactase to digest dairy. For example, lactase is an enzyme that breaks down lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. Many proteins are biological catalysts called enzymes that speed up the rate of chemical reactions by reducing the amount of energy needed for the reactions to proceed. Proteins such as actin make up the three-dimensional cytoskeleton that gives cells structure and determines their shapes. Credit: Xiaowei Zhuang, HHMI, Harvard University, and Nature Publishing Group.
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